Progymnasmata: Narrative

Classical Writing Exercises in Preparation for Rhetoric

This post is part of a Series on the Progymnasmata; a classical collection of writing exercises which reach back to Greek and Roman antiquity. These exercises are designed, tested, and proven to form well rounded and versatile writers and thinkers who are fully ready to engage in the craft of Rhetoric (the art of persuasion). For a brief introduction to the Progymnasmata with links to examples of the various exercises you may click here.

The goal of writing a narrative is to faithfully retell a story, in succinct or summary fashion, while not leaving out any critical details. The source of the stories to be retold may come from history, myth, story, or law (legal cases). The purpose of writing a narrative is to either commemorate an event which should not be forgotten, to model a virtue which ought to be emulated, or to persuade or dissuade someone (or a group of people) concerning a belief or course of action. 

Narrative of Commemoration

As stated above, narratives of commemoration are meant to remind the reader or hearer of something that should not be forgotten. In the fourth chapter of the biblical book of Joshua Yahweh tells Joshua to set up 12 commemorative stones as they pass over into the promised land expressly for the purpose of causing future generations to ask about them. Yahweh said, “When your children ask in time to come, ‘What do those stones mean to you?’ then you shall tell them that the waters of the Jordan were cut off before the ark of the covenant of the Lord. When it passed over the Jordan, the waters of the Jordan were cut off. So these stones shall be to the people of Israel a memorial forever.” In other words, these stones were intentionally set up to cause children to ask their parents to narrate a story concerning an important event in Israel’s history. By doing so God’s mercy would be regularly recalled as it ought to be. Likewise, when we write a narrative of commemoration we retell a story which ought not to be forgotten because it is a story which helps us remember who we are as Christians, or as a nation, or as a family, etc. The Book of Deuteronomy is in many ways a narrative of commemoration as Moses recounts God’s deliverance of his people from Egypt, his provision for them in the wilderness, the destruction of the unbelieving, and as he reviews the commandments of God. Moses' farewell address to the people of Israel is given so that they will remember what God has done for them as they enter the promised land.

Narrative of Virtue

Narratives of virtue retell a story in order to elucidate (make clear) the nature of a particular virtue and to encourage the reader or hearer to pursue the given virtue and make it their own. A phenomenal example of this kind of narration comes to us in the eleventh chapter of the biblical book of Hebrews. In his letter to the Hebrews the apostle Paul commended the theological virtue of faith when he wrote,

Now faith is the assurance of things hoped for, the conviction of things not seen. For by it the people of old received their commendation. By faith we understand that the universe was created by the word of God, so that what is seen was not made out of things that are visible.

By faith Abel offered to God a more acceptable sacrifice than Cain, through which he was commended as righteous, God commending him by accepting his gifts. And through his faith, though he died, he still speaks. By faith Enoch was taken up so that he should not see death, and he was not found, because God had taken him. Now before he was taken he was commended as having pleased God. And without faith it is impossible to please him, for whoever would draw near to God must believe that he exists and that he rewards those who seek him. By faith Noah, being warned by God concerning events as yet unseen, in reverent fear constructed an ark for the saving of his household. By this he condemned the world and became an heir of the righteousness that comes by faith….

The narration continues (beyond what is quoted above) to walk the reader through the ‘who's who’ of Old Testament figures who followed Yahweh by faith. The narration and stringing together of these stories helps to define (by example) the virtue being highlighted and also to give encouragement to the reader/hearer to follow their example.

Narrative of Persuasion

The third kind of narrative is that of persuasion (or dissuasion) in which a story is retold with the intent of changing the reader or hearer’s mind about some idea or to move them towards (or away from) some course of action. Stephen’s speech in Acts 7 is a great example of the narration of persuasion in which he attempts to persuade his hearers not to follow the same sinful course of action that their fathers did. 

Stephen begins with the story of Abraham, saying,  “Brothers and fathers, hear me. The God of glory appeared to our father Abraham when he was in Mesopotamia, before he lived in Haran, and said to him, ‘Go out from your land and from your kindred and go into the land that I will show you.’” He continues narrating through the story of other key figures in salvation history (e.g. Isaac, Jacob, and Jacob’s 12 sons) down to the time of Moses. Moses’ story he explains in greater detail because it is Moses’ story, in particular, which he means to use to persuade his hearers away from their present course of action; unbelief and sinful rebellion against Jesus. 

Stephen continues,

This Moses, whom they rejected, saying, ‘Who made you a ruler and a judge?’—this man God sent as both ruler and redeemer by the hand of the angel who appeared to him in the bush. This man led them out, performing wonders and signs in Egypt and at the Red Sea and in the wilderness for forty years. This is the Moses who said to the Israelites, ‘God will raise up for you a prophet like me from your brothers.’

In the end Stephen connects Moses to Jesus of Nazareth; the prophet like Moses to whom the people of Israel should listen. Stephen condemns the current course of action of the people of Israel, stating, 

“You stiff-necked people, uncircumcised in heart and ears, you always resist the Holy Spirit. As your fathers did, so do you. Which of the prophets did your fathers not persecute? And they killed those who announced beforehand the coming of the Righteous One, whom you have now betrayed and murdered, you who received the law as delivered by angels and did not keep it.”

Just as the Israelites ancestors disobeyed Moses and spurned the prophets, so they were now doing to the Messiah. This whole speech deserves to be read in context because it is a masterwork of the narrative of persuasion. Stephen effectively lined up his listeners with the past actions and failures of their people and he demonstrated the negative results that came from following that course of action in the past. Those willing to listen to reason would have been moved to repentance by his well constructed speech (clearly there were not many reasonable listeners that day).

Further Thoughts

Length of a Narrative:

Narratives can vary greatly in length and it is the job of the person writing or giving the speech to know when it is appropriate to be detailed or brief. Abraham Lincoln, for instance, found an occasion to give the briefest of narrations at the beginning of his short (but extremely memorable) speech known as “The Gettysburg Address”. He stated his narration of America’s brief history in these few words, “​​Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent, a new nation, conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal.” The entire length of his speech is only about five times as long as this basic narration, yet Lincoln effectively told the story of America’s founding and purpose as a land of “Liberty”. For the purpose of this exercise, however, you will write a more comprehensive narrative to help you learn all the skills which are available to narrative writers. As you grow in practice and wisdom you will learn when greater brevity is more appropriate upon certain occasions.

Necessary Parts of a Complete Narrative:

1. Action: Tell your reader or hearer what events took place.

2. Agent: Tell your reader or hearer about who was involved in those events.

3. Time: Tell your reader or hearer when these events occurred in history.

4. Place: Tell your reader or hearer where these events took place.

5. Manner: Tell your reader or hearer the way in which these events took place.

6. Cause: Tell your reader or hearer why these events took place.

Ways a Completed Narrative Can be Modified:

Once you have written a narrative, or if you are considering a complete narrative written by someone else, you can also modify it to fit your purposes. There are three ways to modify a narrative. A narrative may be condensed, expanded, or slanted.

1. Condense: Sometimes it is necessary to trim the fat so that your narration fits better into a larger speech or thesis paper. In such cases it may be appropriate to give an abbreviated retelling since the narration is only an aid to your larger purpose. Isolating the key details will be very important so that nothing is lost in the condensed retelling that is vital to the integrity of the story.

2. Expand: Sometimes it is necessary to expand upon a narration by providing additional information and details. For instance, a particular audience may lack the necessary context or background information to understand the story you are recounting, making it necessary to give them more information. For instance if you are retelling the story of the gospel coming to Cornelius in Acts 10 it might be helpful to add details about why Peter would normally have been reluctant to enter the house of a gentile (non-Jew) if the audience is not familiar with the Mosaic Law.

3. Slant: Putting a “slant” on a story means to tell in light of some persuasive goal to move the audience towards agreement with your perspective on the matter. In some cases this means being selective about the details you do or do not share. In other cases it means saying the same things but choosing words which are meant to influence the feelings of your audience. For instance, whether the story of the crucifixion is relayed to the hearer as “the greatest example of child abuse in cosmic history” or “the sacrificial love of God giving his only Son that the world might be saved” has a significant impact upon the hearer.

An important qualification should be made as pertains to Christian virtue and any modification of a narrative. In whatever way we modify a narrative we ought to firmly uphold the truth of the matter. Truth is that which corresponds to reality; that which reports the way things actually are (or were) and it is not simply about what we want them to be or how we want them to be perceived. The non-Christian world may seek to rework, reframe, or retell a narrative to gain the advantage for themselves or for their “team” (so to speak) without concern for what is true, good, or beautiful. As Christian writers and speakers we must never lower ourselves to such tactics, rather, we must uphold truth and be unwavering in our commitment to it.

Attributes of a Good Narrative:

Every good narrative will have the qualities of being concise, being clear, and being credible.

1. Concise: Being concise does not necessarily mean being short or brief. Concise means being “to the point” and it means avoiding rambling or adding unnecessary details. Writing a narrative is not like writing a fictional story wherein sometimes world-building means adding additional, seemingly non-necessary, details to develop the characters and their environment. A narrative is a retelling of an already extant story which you are trying to pass on to others for a specific purpose. You should not add anything which is not absolutely necessary for the sake of clarity and understanding.

2. Clear: Good writing and speaking is about being understood. This means we ought to pay attention to our grammar, spelling, syntax, etc., to make sure that they do not detract from our goal. Further, we should do our best not to load our narrative with lots of jargon or terminology that is not readily understood by our targeted audience. How you write a narrative may vary depending upon who you are addressing and what you may reasonably expect them to already know about your subject matter. Avoid the use of highly technical terms and figurative language unless you are certain it will be understood and well received by your audience. Even then, a little goes a long way. No one needs you to impress them with how smart you can make yourself sound. The goal is to be understood more than it is to simply impress.

3. Credible: Effective communication is believable communication. When we write a narrative it should be constructed in such a way as to lend credibility (faith) to the readers or hearers. The sources for our information should be stated or obvious, the story should be told in a way that makes the events sound plausible (unless our goal is to undermine the narrative), and the information should be relayed accurately so we are not discredited before those who know the truth.

Topic Suggestions for Practice Writing Narratives:

1. The Call of Abraham (Genesis 12)

2. The Crucifixion of Jesus (The Four Gospels)

3. The Conversion of Saul of Tarsus (Acts 9)

4. The Return of Odysseus to Ithaca (Homer, Odyssey)

5. The Battle of Thermopylae (Herodotus, Histories)

6. Caesar’s Invasion of Britain (Monmouth, History of the Kings of Britain)

7. The Assassination of Julius Caesar (Shakespeare, Caesar)

8. The Story of Prometheus (Green, Tales of Greek Heroes / Aeschylus, Prometheus Bound)

9. The Trials of Heracles (Green, Tales of Greek Heroes)

10. The Norse Creation Myth (Green, Tales of the Norsemen)

11. Gilgamesh and Enkidu Slay Huwawa (The Epic of Gilgamesh)

12. The Trial of Socrates (Plato, Apology)

Instructions

1. Choose a story or event to narrate.

2. Identify all of the parts of your narrative in outline form. State who was involved, what happened, where it happened, when it happened, how it happend, and why it happened.

3. Decide whether to write a narrative of commemoration, virtue, or persuasion. The chosen story or event may decide this for you but sometimes more than one approach is possible with the same story.

4. Introduce your narration and place it in its appropriate context based upon your goal. 

   1. If you want to commemorate something, explain that to your reader or hearer. What is to be remembered? Why does it matter? How does the story you are telling help us remember this?

   2. If you want to model a virtue, what virtue are you drawing our attention to? What is the definition of that virtue? Why is this story a good example of that virtue? Why should we want to have this virtue in our lives?

   3. If you want to persuade your audience, toward what idea or action are you moving them? Why is this story relevant to the topic? Why should your narration move your audience to change their mind or behavior?

5. Retell the story towards the purpose you have chosen, faithfully preserving the key details, wording it in such a way as to highlight your purpose in telling the story.

6. Conclude with an exhortation to your audience to remember, to practice the given virtue, or to change their minds or actions in light of the story.